1887
Volume 30, Issue 1
  • E-ISSN: 1365-2117

Abstract

Abstract

Relay ramps are integral components of normal fault systems that control sediment transport pathways in evolving rifts. We attribute differences in the geometry of fluvial systems that drain relay ramps to the scale of the ramp bounding fault segments, the spacing between segments and the amount of overlap between segments. Previous conceptual models for relay ramp geomorphological evolution have assumed that ramp fluvial catchments develop on the ramp surfaces and flow parallel to fault strike into the adjacent basin. Numerous examples exist in nature, however, that show that this is not ubiquitous. The fundamental question of what drives differences in fluvial geometry in these settings has, to date, not been fully addressed. We selected 27 relay ramps across the Basin and Range, western North America, and mapped, via GPS and remote sensing, the faults and ramp fluvial systems associated with each site. The sites represent a range of fault scales, which we define by the total outboard fault length, and a range of spacing and overlap values in order to better understand the structural controls on differences among ramp fluvial systems. Results show that the majority of a relay ramp surface drains parallel to fault strike when the outboard fault is less than about 15 km long. High overlap/spacing ratios are associated with relays along shorter (<15 km long) outboard faults, whereas lower overlap/spacing ratios are associated with relays along longer faults. Relays with lower overlap/spacing values may be more common along longer outboard faults because they survive for longer periods of time in the landscape. Our geomorphological observations can be used to predict synrift depocenter locations along segmented faults, but these observations only apply if the faults are short (<15 km long) and in early rifting stages. At longer fault lengths, ramp fluvial system geometry has no discernable relationship with any specific structural parameter.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1111/bre.12240
2017-04-29
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Athmer, W. & Luthi, S.M. (2011) The effect of relay ramps on sediment routes and deposition: a review. Sed. Geol., 242, 1–17.
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Bateman, P.C. (1965) Geology and tungsten mineralization of the Bishop District, CA, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 470 Reston, VA.
  3. Bonnet, E., Bour, O., Odling, N.E., Davy, P., Main, I., Cowie, P. & Berkowitz, B. (2001) Scaling of fracture systems in geological media. Rev. Geophys., 39, 347–383.
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Cartwright, J.A., Mansfield, C. & Trudgill, B. (1996) The growth of normal faults by segment linkage. In: Modern Developments in Structural Interpretation, Validation and Modelling (Ed. by BuchananP.G. & NieuwlandD.A. ) Geol. Soc. London, Special Pub., 99, 163–177.
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Childs, C., Manzocchi, T., Nicol, A., Walsh, J.J., Soden, A.M., Conneally, J.C. & Delogkos, E. (2016) The relationship between normal drag, relay ramp aspect ratio and fault zone structure. In: The Geometry and Growth of Normal Faults (Ed. by ChildsC. , HoldsworthR.E. , JacksonC.A.‐L. , ManzocchiT. , WalshJ.J. & YieldingG. ) Geol. Soc. London, Special Pub., 439, doi. 10.1144/SP439.16.
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Cowie, P.A. (1998) A healing‐reloading feedback control on the growth rate of seismogenic faults. J. Struct. Geol., 20, 1075–1087.
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Cowie, P. & Roberts, G.P. (2001) Constraining slip rates and spacings for active normal faults. J. Struct. Geol., 23, 1901–1915.
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Cowie, P.A., Gupta, S. & Dawers, N.H. (2000) Implications of fault array evolution for synrift depocentre development: insights from a numerical fault growth model. Basin Res., 12, 241–261.
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Cowie, P.A., Attal, M., Tucker, G.E., Whittaker, A.C., Naylor, M., Ganas, A. & Roberts, G.P. (2006) Investigation of the surface process response to fault interaction and linkage using a numerical modeling approach. Basin Res., 18, 231–266.
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Crider, J.G. (2001) Oblique slip and the geometry of normal‐fault linkage: mechanics and a case study from the Basin and Range in Oregon. J. Struct. Geol., 23, 1997–2009.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Crider, J.G. & Pollard, D.D. (1998) Fault linkage: three‐dimensional mechanical interaction between echelon normal faults. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 24373–24391.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Crone, A.J. & Haller, K.M. (1991) Segmentation and the coseismic behavior of Basin and Range normal faults: examples from east‐central Idaho and southwestern Montana, U.S.A. J. Struct. Geol., 13, 151–164.
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Davis, A.M. (2005) Geomorphological evolution of propagating fault tips in extensional and compressional settings. Ph.D. thesis. Imperial College London, UK.
  14. Dawers, N.H. & Underhill, J.R. (2000) The role of fault interaction and linkage in controlling synrift stratigraphic sequences: late Jurassic, Stratfjord East Area, Northern North Sea. Am. Asso. Petrol. Geo. Bull., 84, 45–64.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Densmore, A.L., Dawers, N.H., Gupta, S., Allen, P.A. & Gilpin, R. (2003) Landscape evolution at extensional relay zones. J. Geophy. Res., 108, B5.
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Diggles, M.F., Conrad, J.E. & Soreghan, G.A. (1990) Geologic map of the Diablo Mountain Wilderness Study Area, Oregon, U.S. Geol. Surv. Map MF‐2121, scale 1:48,000.
  17. Dohrenwend, J.C., Schell, B.A. & Moring, B.C. (1992) Reconnaissance photogeologic map of young faults in the Millett 1° by 2° quadrangle, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Surv. Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF‐2176, 1 sheet, scale 1:250,000.
  18. Dohrenwend, J.C., Schell, B.A., Menges, C.M., Moring, B.C. & McKittrick, M.A. (1996) Reconnaissance photogeologic map of young (Quaternary and late Tertiary) faults in Nevada. In: Analysis of Nevada's metal‐bearing mineral resources: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Open‐File Report 96‐2 (Ed. by SingerD.A. ), panel 1. Scale 1:1,000,000. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology.
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Doser, D.I. (1986) Earthquake processes in the Rainbow Mountain‐Fairview Peak‐Dixie Valley, Nevada region 1954‐1959. J. Geophys. Res., 91, 12572–12586.
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Duffy, O.B., Brocklehurst, S.H., Gawthorpe, R.L., Leeder, E.L. & Finch, E. (2015) Controls on landscape and drainage evolution in regions of distributed normal faulting: Perachora Peninsula, Corinth Rift, Central Greece. Basin Res., 27, 473–494.
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Ferrill, D.A. & Morris, A.P. (2001) Displacement gradient and deformation in normal fault systems. J. Struct. Geol., 23, 619–638.
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Fossen, H. & Rotevatn, A. (2016) Fault linkage and relay structures in extensional settings – a review. Earth Sci. Rev. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.11.014.
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Gawthorpe, R.L. & Hurst, J.M. (1993) Transfer zones in extensional basins: their structural style and influence on drainage development and stratigraphy. J. Geol. Soc. London, 150, 1137–1152.
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Gilpin, R. (2003) Interaction between stream development and propagating extensional faults. Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK.
  25. Gupta, A. & Scholz, C.H. (2000) A model of normal fault interaction based on observation and theory. J. Struct. Geol., 22, 865–879.
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Gupta, S., Cowie, P.A., Dawers, N.H. & Underhill, J.R. (1998) A mechanism to explain rift‐basin subsidence and stratigraphic patterns through fault‐array evolution. Geology, 26, 595–598.
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Gupta, S., Underhill, J.R., Sharp, I. & Gawthorpe, R.L. (1999) Role of fault interactions in controlling synrift sediment dispersal patterns: Miocene, Abu Alaqa Group, Suez Rift, Sinai, Egypt. Basin Res., 11, 167–189.
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Hooper, P.R., Binger, G.B. & Lees, K.R. (2002) Ages of the Steens and Columbia River flood basalts and their relationship to extension‐related calc‐alkalic volcanism in eastern Oregon. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 114, 43–50.
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Hopkins, M.C. & Dawers, N.H. (2016) Vertical deformation of lacustrine shorelines along breached relay ramps, Catlow Valley fault, southeastern Oregon, USA. Tectonophys, 674, 89–100.
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Hus, R., Acoella, V., Funiciello, R. & de Batist, M. (2005) Sandbox models of relay ramp structure and evolution. J. Struct. Geol., 27, 549–473.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Jackson, J. & Leeder, M. (1994) Drainage systems and the development of normal faults: an example from Pleasant Valley, Nevada. J. Struct. Geol., 16, 1041–1059.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Jackson, J.A. & White, N.J. (1989) Normal faulting in the upper continental crust: observations from regions of active extension. J. Struct. Geol., 11, 15–36.
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Lidke, D.J. (compiler) (2000) Fault number 1192, Buffalo Creek fault zone, in Quaternary fault and fold database of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. website, <http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults>
  34. Long, J.J. & Imber, J. (2011) Geological controls on fault relay zone scaling. J. Struct. Geol., 33, 1790–1800.
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Ludington, S., Moring, B.C., Flynn, K.S. & Hopkins, M.J. (2005) Preliminary integrated databases for the United States – western states: California, Nevada, Arizona, and Washington. U.S. Geol. Surv. Open File Report, 2005–1305.
  36. McCalpin, J.P., Machette, M.N. & Haller, K.M. (compilers) (2011) Fault number 726d, Grand Valley fault, Star Valley section, from Quaternary fault and fold database of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. website, http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults
  37. McLeod, A.E., Underhill, J.R., Davies, S.J. & Dawers, N.H. (2002) The influence of fault array evolution on synrift sedimentation patterns: controls on deposition in the Strathspey‐Brent‐Statfjord half graben, northern North Sea. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geo. Bull., 86, 1061–1093.
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Personius, S.F. (compiler) (2002) Fault number 1800, Unnamed Sheepshead Mountains fault, from Quaternary fault and fold database of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. website, http://earthquakes.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults
  39. Piety, L.A., Sullivan, T.J. & Anders, M.H. (1992) Segmentation and paleoseismicity of the Grand Valley fault, southeastern Idaho and western Wyoming. In: Regional Geology of Eastern Idaho and Western Wyoming (Ed. by LinkP. , KuntzM. & PlattL. ) Geol. Society Am. Memoir, 179, 155–182.
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Pinter, N. & Keller, E.A. (1995) Geomorphological analysis of neotectonic deformation, northern Owens Valley, California. Geol. Rund., 84, 200–212.
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Prosser, S. (1993) Rift‐related linked depositional systems and their seismic expression. In: Tectonics and Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy (Ed. by WilliamsG.D. & DobbA. ) Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 71, 35–66.
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Reed, S.L., Link, P.K., Stanford, L.R. & Long, S.P. (2012) Geologic Map of Idaho, Idaho Geol. Surv., scale 1:750,000.
  43. Reheis, M.C., Adams, K.D., Oviatt, C.G. & Bacon, S.N. (2014) Pluvial lakes in the Great Basin of the western United States – a view from the outcrop. Quat. Sci. Rev., 97, 33–57.
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Sarna‐Wojcicki, A.M., Pringle, M.S. & Wijbrans, J. (2000) New 40Ar/39Ar Age of the Bishop Tuff from multiple sites and sediment rate calibration for the Matuyama‐Brunhes boundary. J. Geophys. Res., 105, 21431–21443.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Sawyer, T.L. (compiler) (1998) Fault number 1342, Midway Hills fault, from Quaternary fault and fold database of the United States: U.S. Geol. Surv. <http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults>.
  46. Schell, B.A. (1981) Faults and lineaments in the MX Sitting Region, Nevada and Utah, Volume I: Technical report to U.S. Department of [Defense] the Air Force, Norton Air Force Base, California, under Contract FO4704‐80‐C‐0006, November 6, 1981, 77 p.
  47. Soliva, R., Benedicto, A. & Maerten, L. (2006) Spacing and linkage of confined normal faults: importance of mechanical thickness. J. Geophys. Res., 111, doi:10.1029/2004JB003507.
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Stein, R.S. & Barrientos, S.E. (1985) Planar high‐angle faulting in the Basin and Range: geodetic analysis of the 1983 Borah Peak, Idaho, earthquake. J. Geophys. Res., 90, 11355–11366.
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Trudgill, B. & Cartwright, J. (1994) Relay‐ramp forms and normal‐fault linkage, Canyonlands National Park, Utah. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 106, 1143–1157.
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Walker, G.W. & Macleod, N.S. (1991) Geologic map of Oregon: U.S. Geol. Surv., scale 1:500,000.
  51. Wallace, R.E. (1984) Fault scarps formed during the earthquakes of October 2, 1915 in Pleasant Valley, Nevada, and some tectonic implications. Prof. Pap. U.S Geol. Surv., 1274A, 1–33.
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Whipp, P.S., Jackson, C.A.‐L., Schlische, R.W., Withjack, M.O. & Gawthorpe, R.L. (2016) Spatial distribution and evolution of fault‐segment boundary types in rift systems: observations from experimental clay models. In: The Geometry and Growth of Normal Faults (Ed. by ChildsC. , HoldsworthR.E. , JacksonC.A.‐L. , ManzocchiT. , WalshJ.J. & YieldingG. ) Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 439, doi. 10.1144/SP439.7.
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Willden, R. & Speed, R.C. (1974) Geology and mineral deposits of Churchill County. Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulletin, 83, 95 pp.
  54. Willett, S.D., McCoy, S.W., Perron, J.T., Goren, L. & Chen, C. (2014) Dynamic reorganization of river basins. Science, 343, 1117–1126.
    [Google Scholar]
http://instance.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journals/10.1111/bre.12240
Loading
/content/journals/10.1111/bre.12240
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplements

. Map figure.

. Map figure.

. Map figure.

. Map figure.

. Map figure.

. Map figure.

. Explanation of map figures.

WORD
  • Article Type: Research Article

Most Cited This Month Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error