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PGCE 2008
- Conference date: 14 Jan 2008 - 15 Jan 2008
- Location: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- Published: 14 January 2008
1 - 50 of 79 results
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Structural Controls on Hydrocarbon Migration & Accumulation: An Example Form the Muglad Basin, Sudan
Authors James Will Udo Agany and Hamdan MohamadThe Muglad Rift Basin of the interior Sudan forms an important part of the West and Central African Rift System. It is characterized by thick non-marine clastic sequences of Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous to Tertiary age. So far, well penetration is restricted to the Tertiary section in the deepest parts of the basin. However, more than 15 km of sedimentary section have been inferred from seismic data in the main trough.
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The Prospectivity Of Stratigraphic Traps In Group I Interval, Serok - Laba Barat Area, Block PM 324, Malay Basin
More LessThe Serok – Laba Barat area covers 20km x 20km, is located in open block PM 324 and geologically situated in the central part of the Malay Basin. It is made up of two east-west trending main culminations dissected by north-south trending sealing faults which were sites for typical fault-dependent plays exemplified by its three major discoveries: Serok (1979), Laba (1979), Laba Barat (1990). These discoveries proved significant hydrocarbon accumulations at mainly Groups E, F and H intervals. However most, if not all, of the previous wells drilled in the area did not adequately test the Group I section where nevertheless oil shows were observed.
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Basin Modelling and Petroleum System Analysis of Southern Sulu Sea - East Sabah Basin
By Chan Eng HoeThis paper presents the results basin modelling work done on the southern portion of Sulu Sea – East Sabah Basin. The study area straddles across the international boundary separating Malaysia and Philippine. A compilation of the seismic data, laboratories data and well data was prepared for the project under the agreement of both sides including but not limited to vitrinite reflectance data, temperature data and lithology data etc.
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Application of Development While Exploring (DWE) Approach in Marginal Fields Development in PCPPOC’s Block SK 305, Offshore Sarawak, Malaysia
Authors Foo Wah Yang, Azlan Ghazali, Medy Kurniawan and Bui Ngoc QuangPCPP Operating Company Sdn. Bhd. (PCPPOC), the Joint Operating Company of Sarawak Block SK305 PSC, is owned by a Consortium of Tripartite National Oil Companies, namely PETRONAS Carigali Sdn. Bhd. of Malaysia, PERTAMINA of Indonesia and PVEP of Vietnam.
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Utilizing Sequence Stratigraphic Concepts to Define New Plays in NW Sabah Basin
Authors Edy Kurniawan, Nurita Bt Ridwan and Robert Wong Hin FattNW Sabah basin, located in offshore of northwestern Sabah continental margin, is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon producing basins in Malaysia. The basin has been explored the last 110 years since the first exploration well Menombok-1 was drilled in 1897. The sequence stratigraphic study for NW Sabah Basin was conducted since first March 2007 in conjunction with basin evaluation study for this area. The main objective is to identify new hydrocarbon plays and leads other than the conventional play type in the study area with seismic sequence stratigraphic application.
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Using Core and Log Data to Link Depositional Environment with Oil System in Siliciclastic Reservoirs: Case Study from Muglad Basin, Sudan
Authors Yasir Mohamed Abdalla Ghorashi and Saif El Islam SulimanMuglad basin is the major part of Sudan rift system, which in turn, is a main component of West and Central Africa Rift-related System (WCARS). Sedimentary sequences of Muglad rift basin consist of nonmarine sequences of lacustrine and fluvial/alluvial facies of early Cretaceous to late Tertiary age directly rested upon the Precambrian basement. Muglad basin had passed through three sedimentary cycles. First sedimentary cycle began from early Cretaceous and its termination is marked, stratigraphically, by basin wide deposition of the thick sandstone of the Bentiu Formation. Second sedimentary cycle, occurred in late Cretaceous and seen in the widespread deposition of lacustrine and flood plain claystones and siltstones.
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Depositional Setting and History of Cored Intervals RS 8 Reservoir Block 1, South Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan
Authors David Ince, Gordon Yeomans and Graham BlackbournPETRONAS Carigali Sdn. Bhd. has been actively exploring and developing the Block 1 area of the Central Caspian Sea, Offshore Turkmenistan for the past 10 years and to date has drilled 16 wells of which five have been cored, providing a near complete coverage of the RS8 reservoir section. The information derived form analysis of the cores provides invaluable control over the static and dynamic models developed to assess reserves and predict likely reservoir behaviour.
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A Geocellular Modeling Approach to Characterization of Fluvial Stacked Reservoirs – Northern Fields, Block PM-3 CAA, Malay Basin
More Less3D geocellular modeling is becoming commonplace in today's sub-surface workflows. This short paper outlines, with examples, an approach to modeling reservoir morphology from seismic data and limited well information in the pre-development phase of a project.
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Sequence of Slope Instability and Healing: Key to Predicting Deep-Water Reservoir Distribution in NW Borneo
Drilling results in deep-water Sabah acreage have proved the presence of sizeable turbidite reservoirs in the NW Borneo basin-slope environment. The reservoir distribution and quality, however, show significant spatial and temporal variation. Spatial Heterogeneity is related to different source terrains, shelf dynamics and the location of entry points into the upper slope. The temporal heterogeneity is ultimately linked to the episodes of tectonic deformation and subsequent geomorphologic healing by gravity flow deposition.
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Seismically Driven Reservoir Characterization Using an Innovative Integrated Approach: Application to a Fractured Reservoir
Authors Abdel M Zellou, Soren Christensen, Tanja Ebbe Dalgaard and Gary RobinsonThis paper presents an innovative integrated workflow applied to the characterization of a fractured chalk reservoir in the Danish North Sea. The methodology uses simultaneous integration of geophysical, geological and engineering data to produce an improved reservoir description. Integrating dynamic flow data with the geophysical and geologic information in 3D, reservoir properties - porosity and effective permeability- are generated using artificial intelligence tools. The strength of this technique lies in the fact that property modeling is not constrained to match upscaled well data and consequently these data serve to validate the outcome.
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The West Crocker Formation (Early Oligocene to Middle Miocene) in the Kota Kinabalu Area, Sabah: Facies, Sedimentary Processes and Depositional Setting
Authors Nizam A. Bakar, Abdul Hadi Abd Rahman and Mazlan MadonThe West Crocker Formation in Kota Kinabalu area in Sabah is one of the best exposed examples of deepwater sedimentary sequence in Malaysia. This paper describes and documents the detailed facies characteristics and sedimentology of outcrops, and proposes a depositional framework for the West Crocker Formation in the Kota Kinabalu area.
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Structural Evolution of Mehar/Mazarani Fold Belt Area, Pakistan
Authors Shamim Haider Ali and Ramly ManjaPCPL is the operator of the Mehar Block since 29th December 1999. The area in geological terms represents the first line of fold belt coming out of foredeep to the east. The current interpretation of the Kirthar Fold Belt (KFB) is of thick-skinned tectonics involving preexisting extensional faults developed during late cretaceous times (Dr. J Warburton, Nov. 2000)and Mehar - Mazarani Fold Belt (MMFB) is part of the KFB . However, in order to develop a better understanding of the evolution of the MMFB, it is desirable to develop an understanding of the configuration of the basement and overlying sediments through times. An attempt is being made to integrate surface geology, well data, 2D seismic data and other parts of the Pakistan basin as analogue to build a model that would help in understanding the relationship between the structural geology and stratigraphy of area through time. This would eventually help in determining new Play fairway of this area.
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Mid-Miocene Unconformity
More LessThe Mid-Miocene Unconformity (MMU) is recognized throughout the South China Sea passive margin. It marks the end of rifting that created the marginal basin. It is understood to represent the break-up unconformity when active rifting gave way to sea-floor spreading in the contiguous southwest extension of the abyssal plain. Anomalies are not constrained in this part of the abyssal plain because the oceanic domain is very narrow and the magnetic anomalies not well expressed. However, magnetic anomaly 5c, whose age is estimated at 16.6 Ma, has been identified 300 km NE of the wedge-shaped SW extension of the oceanic area (Huchon et al., 2001). There is no direct drilling evidence of the age of the MMU.
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The Palaeotopographic and Palaeodrainage Evolution of the South China Sea Hinterlands from the Late Cretaceous to Recent
Authors Paul Markwick and Kerri WilsonThe tectonic complexity of Southeast Asia is clearly expressed in the modern hinterland topography and drainage of the region. Consequently, as the underlying tectonics has evolved, so to has the landscape. This has had major implications for the character and flux of clastics into downstream basins through time, which in turn affects hydrocarbon potential at the basin to prospect scale. In order to help understand this complicated history, we have compiled a series of detailed plate tectonic and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the South China Sea region. Upon these maps we have built models of the palaeolandscape and palaeodrainage basins and river systems. The methodologies used in the mapping integrate a re-examination of the underlying structure and tectonics using GETECH’s in-house gravity and magnetic data and expertise, with detailed palaeoenvironmental mapping that distinguishes between sediment source areas (regions above contemporary base-level, sensu Wheeler, 1964) and depositional sites (areas below contemporary base-level). By mapping regional base-level, we implicitly include an understanding of the dynamics of the landscape and the boundary conditions (climate, vegetation, rock type, etc). The method also provides the means whereby we can link the maps directly to sequence stratigraphy, with the ultimate aim of developing fully dynamic palaeolandscape models. Topography is then added to these maps through comparison with the elevational distribution of comparable Recent tectonic regimes, fission track, hypsometric analysis and other palaeoaltimetry, sedimentological and provenance data where available. For Indochina and South China, the maps reveal a complicated history of uplift, erosion and river capture that is manifest in the changing sediment fluxes to the offshore basins, with major rivers such as the Mekong, Red and Pearl only developing their modern topology by the Late Miocene. This talk will discuss the methods used to generate the maps and show some examples of this work. We will also demonstrate how we are developing methods to provide detailed insights into sediment generation and distribution through the petroliferous basins of SE Asia.
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Pore Pressure Prediction as a Prospecting Tool, Input to Risk, Volumes and Field Development
Authors John Paul Brown and Suriani Sulaiman MustahimTraditionally, pore pressure predictions calculated from offset wells and interval velocity data have been used almost exclusively to design well casings and drilling mud weight programs. However, a pore pressure prediction also contains valuable information on how oil, gas and water is behaving in the subsurface and importantly how fluid pressures will effect top seals, fault seals and column heights in hydrocarbon prospects. PETRONAS Carigali have begun to use pore pressure as a critical input to pre-drill prospect
evaluation by combining fault and horizon information, derived from geological maps, with an understanding of how fluid migration and pore pressures, derived from pore pressure predictions, can affect trap risk and volumes. The use of pore pressure predictions as an primary exploration tool has the advantage that it does not require any additional computational work since a pore pressure prediction must be produced in order to design a well. The key change is a modification to the existing exploration workflow so that pore pressures are calculated during the initial exploration stage which allows them to be combined with mapped horizon and fault data to produce integrated geo-pressure / geometric trap scenarios.
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Sedimentological Analysis of an Early Miocene Tide-Influenced Deltaic/Coastal Plain System: Cycle II, Balingian Province, Offshore Sarawak
More LessThe Balingian Province of northwest Borneo contains a wide range of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs, with production dominantly from Early Miocene coastal to lower coastal plain sand bodies. Previous studies have interpreted these deposits as being part of a fluvial-dominated coastal system (Almond et al., 1990). However, this study highlights the widespread occurrence of tidal indicators in the Balingian Province, suggesting a more strongly tide-influenced coastal regime. The occurrence of marine-influenced
organic-rich sediments, in particular mangrove-derived coal deposits (Wan Hasiah, 2003), also supports the tide-influenced coastal regime for the Balingian Province.
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Growing Evidence of Active Deformation in the Malay Basin Region
By H.D. TjiaVery young crustal movements in the Malay basin region point to the possibility of reactivation of regional faults in the basin that may compromise their sealing integrity. In addition, active or reactivated faults that are rooted in the pre-Tertiary basement and reach up close to the base of Quaternary seabed sediments of the basin pose obvious hazards to offshore installations.
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Climate Stratigraphy – A New Approach in Near-Synchronous Subsurface Correlation
By S. Djin NioAs oil and gas E&P is moving towards more mature phases, innovative new approaches are needed in petroleum geology. To find additional reserves in mature exploration areas and to improve production in existing fields, a better understanding of the spatial distribution and time-stratigraphic framework of the potential reservoirs and seals is needed. To meet these challenges, existing conventional stratigraphic methods have been improved and new stratigraphic concepts have been developed during the last decade. Amongst one of the most important concepts which have been proposed by the Exxon school a decade ago was sequence stratigraphy. Nowadays, sequence stratigraphy is widely applied in subsurface correlations and is becoming a routine practice. Sequence stratigraphy can best be seen as the delineation and correlation of changes in depositional trends that are generated during a base level cycle (see Embry, 2002). Despite the constant modification and improvement of the sequence stratigraphic concept, it did not reach an important objective – the construction of a near- synchronous stratigraphic correlation framework. One of the main reasons is the strongly model-driven approach of sequence stratigraphy which is preventing to construct an objective and reproducible correlation framework.
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Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Distribution in the Sarawak Basin, and Its Relationship with Entrapment
Authors Mansor Ahmad and Mohd Irwani SadiCarbon dioxide content in both associated and non-associated gases in Sarawak Basin fields varies up to a maximum of 90%. High CO2 content in natural gas reduces the economic value by lowering the saleable gas volume, as well as reducing the BTU content. In addition, special infrastructures are required to develop and process gas accumulations containing high CO2. Understanding the likely geological parameters that control CO2 regional distribution patterns will assist explorationist in targeting prospects with a lower CO2 content. General current understanding on the CO2 distribution in a basin are, CO2 percentage increases with depth and high percentage CO2 accumulation are of inorganic origin and tend to be associated with structures with deep seated faults to facilitate CO2 migration up dip from basement. However, we observe that CO2 percentage varies vertically in a field and does not necessarily increases with depth and could also decreases with depth. CO2 of same inorganic origin are present in several reservoirs of a field; and yet one reservoir may have very low CO2 compared to the other reservoirs. Field observations in the Sarawak Basin CO2 distribution are: 1) Depth of accumulation and origin of CO2 does not influence the percentage distribution.
2) Geometry of traps and seal effectiveness dictates how much CO2 the reservoir can hold. These scenarios are also observed in Sarawak Basin. Major marine transgressive shale provides good and effective top seal. Thus reefal carbonate terminated by drowning can support higher gas column with low CO2 content.
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Geomechanical Considerations Regarding EOR Efficiency and CO2 Sequestration
Authors David Castillo and David Bowling and Sunil NathAn accurate geomechanical assessment of the subsurface is vitally important when designing, executing and monitoring Enhanced Oil Recovery and CO2 Sequestration Operations. Detailed knowledge of the earth’s current stresses and pressures active in the reservoir (and overburden) provides valuable information for understanding how the reservoir (and overburden) will respond to injecting gases or fluids into reservoir rocks. The stresses operating in the area play an important role in inducing, preventing and controlling hydraulic fracturing (depending on the application). Controlling and containing hydraulic fractures is important for ensuring that the injected gases or fluids are contained within the reservoir during EOR operations. However, in some highly faulted environments, hydraulic fractures have been known to reactivate natural fractures or a faults which has resulted in fluids migrating away from the intended reservoir and minimizing production efficiencies. A case study will be presented in which primary production-induced stress changes were not considered when designing and executing EOR operations which significantly reduced the production performance. Efficient CO2 capture and containment will likely produce for our global societies important
environmental dividends. Geologic concerns include the selection of a suitable reservoir, the preservation of an impermeable top seal and prevention of fault and/or natural fracture reactivation that could breach the CO2 reservoir and cause unplanned leakage. Using a well-constrained geomechanical model it is possible to design a CO2 sequestration program that maximizes the long-term containment of CO2. Presented is a systematic workflow for analyzing in situ data to constrain the geomechanical model and use it to optimize CO2 containment in the context of cap rock integrity, fault leakage integrity and natural fracture stability.
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Sarawak Malaysia Deepwater New Turbidite Play
Authors Fauzil Fanani B. Radilas and Sheh Yackop Abdol KarimBlocks 2A and 2B, located offshore Sarawak in east Malaysia, covers 9000 square kilometers in water depth 150 – 1500 m. Two dry wells were drilled both of which lack post-Middle Miocene Unconformity (MMU) reservoir. Mulu-1 was drilled in 1995 on Block-2B to Cycle 1 at a total depth 5,029 m, and Jelawat-1 drilled 60km SW of Mulu-1 on Block-F encountered significant C1 to C5 gas from MMU sequences. Gas was interpreted from mature post-MMU deep marine sources. Thousands kilometers of fair to good 2D seismic data over the area indicate the presence of strong, continuous events near top MMU sequence boundary. Post-MMU seismic data is characterized by weak, bluer discontinuous reflectors interpreted as massive deep marine shales. Several strong seismic anomalies in Post-MMU sequences have been delineated and are interpreted to be sourced from reworked Pre-MMU sequences. Strong amplitude seismic attribute analysis are wide spread and interpreted to be clastic basin floor fan sediments originating from several feeder channel systems. Amplitudes weaken at the fan edges. Basin floor fans exist in lows and on the flanks of lows. These stratigraphically discontinuous units are enveloped within thick post MMU shales. Sourcing is not considered a problem due to local charging. Risked resources calculated indicate significant hydrocarbon potential is believed to be located in the area.
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Play Types and Hydrocarbon Prospectivity in Petronas’ Blocks N44, N45, N50 and N51 Offshore Northwest Cuba
More LessIn late 2006, PETRONAS Carigali Overseas Sdn Bhd (PCOSB) was awarded the Cuba’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) offshore blocks N44, N45, N50 and N51. These blocks located to the North West of Cuba are in water depths ranging from 1000 m to 2800 m (Figure-1). The first three-year sub-exploration period calls for a minimal work commitment of 4000 line-km of 2D and 1000 sq km of 3D seismic data. About 3968 line-km of existing 2D seismic data from the Compagnie Générale de Géophysique (CGG) spec survey and Russian / CubaPetróleo (CUPET) survey were available for PCOSB. Consistent interpretation on the existing seismic data, with proper scientific explanations to the tectonic history of the opening events of the Gulf of Mexico and its sedimentary occurrence have identified various potential playtypes in this area (Figure-2). Remarkable similarities have been found in depositional environments and stratigraphic units between the continental areas from the East Gulf of Mexico and North West of Cuba. An integral knowledge of the geological context is fundamental in order to infer the main analogies in successful hydrocarbon producing areas in the Mexican part of the Gulf of Mexico and the location of potentially new highly productive petroleum systems in the area. The recently acquired 2D seismic data and the future to be acquired 3D seismic data will further confirm and mature the identified plays and are also crucial to reduce uncertainty and economic risks in this new exploration challenge.
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The Evolution of Geological Thinking and Depositional Framework Interpretation through the Life of a Complex Reservoir, D35 Field, Offshore Sarawak
The D35 field is a sizeable hydrocarbon accumulation discovered by Shell in 1983, located 135 km north from Bintulu, within the Balingian Province of Offshore Sarawak. Hydrocarbons are contained within the stratigraphically complex Early to Middle Miocene clastic sediments, principally in Cycle II and to a lesser extent in the lower part of Cycle III. Its main hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs comprise thick, stacked, cross-bedded sandstones, pebbly cross-bedded sandstones, sandy conglomerate and wavy-to-irregularly laminated sandstone. These sediments were initially interpreted by Shell as fluvial channel deposits, a model which was maintained until the relinquishment of the field in 2004.
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More Oil From an Old Field
More LessBaram field is located in Sarawak Basin, East Malaysia. The field was discovered in 1963 by Baram-1 well in the down-thrown side of the main growth fault. Six additional appraisal wells including the discovery well for Baram South Fault Block were drilled prior to formulating development plans. (Figure 1) The depositional environment is predominantly fluviomarine-coastal inner nerritic reservoirs from Late Miocene to Early Pliocene in age (Upper Cycle V to Lower Cycle VI). Oil bearing reservoirs occur at depth 2500 to 9000 ft tvdss in the sand-shale intercalation settings. In recent years, a systematic detail re-evaluation of the field was carried out to identify further development opportunities. For the G&G aspect it covered the re-analysis of the well correlation, seismic
interpretation, hydrocarbon fluid distribution, and uncertainties analysis. 3D static model has been used and developed for the analysis. (Figure 2). Dealing with the multi-stacked with various thicknesses; range around 10 ft to 60 ft tvdss is challenging. But with the effectiveness use of 3D static modeling, state of art drilling technology, challenging the past assumption and maximizing the development of the minor reservoirs have resulted in identification of upside potential and new reserves. (Figure 3). In 2005 until 2007, 15 wells were drilled from two drilling platforms to further appraise and develop Baram South field, while 4 sidetracks wells, 1 workover & 3 wells were drilled to develop Baram A area, which gave very encouraging results. The overall production of the field has reached the same level as in 1974, i.e 32 years after first field production. (Figure 4).
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Pre-Tertiary Carbonate Play, Offshore Peninsula Malaysia, a Revival of Forgotten Play
Authors Ogail A. Salam and Sahalan A. Aziz and M. Yamin AliThe exploration activities in offshore Peninsular Malaysia have started as early as 1960’s. The first well was drilled in 1969 and the oil discovery had made the area as a new petroleum province in Malaysia beside those in the Sarawak and Sabah Basins. It was then followed by several exploration cycles in 1970’s and 1980’s with many significant discoveries.
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Marine Acquisition and Processing Using Dual Sensor Towed Streamer
PGS has been developing an entirely new towed marine streamer concept for about five years. The project objective was to engineer a streamer that is capable of recording both the scalar pressure field and the vertical component of the vector particle velocity field. PGS’ Next Generation Streamer has accomplished these objectives, and is a step change in streamer technology. This technology overcomes the limitations of hydrophone-only acquisition systems, and allows PGS to separate the up-going wavefield incident upon the streamer from the down-going-wavefield that is reflected from the sea surface. It is thus possible to remove the receiver ghost from the data, at all depths, and thereby recover significant low and high frequency amplitudes normally missing from marine seismic data. It is no longer the case that E&P decision makers must parameterize streamer surveys to maximize data quality at one target depth, whilst sacrificing image quality at shallower or deeper targets. The PGS Next Generation Streamer uses an extremely quiet, ruggedized solid streamer design to provide enhanced resolution, better penetration, and improved operational efficiency. In fact, the towing depth is typically quite deep, thus increasing the operational window in poor weather or environmental conditions that no other system can handle. PGS experience demonstrates that the technology can deliver deghosted data not just for one depth, but for all depths – in one pass, using one streamer depth. It is also a no-risk technology – PGS can use the dual-sensor information to duplicate the parameters of any existing survey, thus allowing 4D matching plus the benefits of improved image clarity. PGS has assembled a full acquisition and data processing product range for the Next Generation
Streamer. 2D commercial operations are planned to begin in late-2007, followed by 3D commercial operations in 2008.
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Sub-Basalt Imaging Offshore India
Authors Tim Bunting, Tim Brice and Sean Murray and Chris KoeningerThe Deccan Trap consists of multiple episodes of lava flows covering large areas onshore and off the West coast of India overlying a number of potential hydro-carbon plays. Due to the high reflectivity of the top-basalt, and the high absorption of the basalt layer, the seismic signal returning from the sub-basalt events is very low amplitude resulting in poor reservoir imaging, with conventional seismic acquisition. This paper describes a test survey acquired by WesternGeco, to use over-under seismic acquisition to
improve image of the intra-basalt and sub-basalt layers. Over-Under acquisition in which sources and or streamers are towed at different depths. Post acquisition wave-field combination techniques take advantage of the change in ghost response, resulting from the different tow depth, to fill of shift the notch resulting in a higher bandwidth image.
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Widening the Acquisition Time Window with Swell Noise Attenuation Capability
Authors George McKinley and Wayne ZanussiSeasonal timing is a critical factor in the acquisition planning stages of a seismic survey. Once vessel availability has been secured for the desired period, the predicted weather conditions must be considered. In Peninsular Malaysia it is widely accepted that March through October is the optimum time window for seismic acquisition, as beyond that period monsoon activity causing rough seas can negatively impact the data quality. Despite the risks associated with the monsoon season it is not uncommon to see seismic vessels operating in West Malaysian waters well into November, as past history has shown periods of breaks in the poor weather allowing for data to be acquired. The survey which forms the basis of this study actually commenced in November and continued to acquire data until the end of January, potentially experiencing the most undesirable of annual weather conditions as it progressed. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate that despite the adverse affects of harsh monsoonal weather on the dataset acquired, seismic processing efforts were capable of attenuating the resultant noise to a level which was considered acceptable for further processing.
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Time-Domain High-Resolution Radon Transform
Authors Michel Schonewille and Peter Aaron and Carl NotforsMultiple attenuation may be classified in two main methodologies; 1) Prediction of multiples from the data itself, and 2) utilizing moveout separation between multiples and primaries. A commonly used version of the prediction approach is the so called SRME technique, where surface related multiples are predicted from the data itself, and at least in principle, does not require any further information. The SRME approach, certainly in its 3D implementation is very computationally intensive, but in recent years with the advent of commodity priced Linux clusters, has become very popular. However, the SRME technique does not work well in shallow marine environments and does not handle interbed multiples, thus there is still a need for approaches based on separation. In this paper we present the method utilizing multiple-primary separation in a tutorial fashion and show its progression from its simplest form in FK space to the latest time-domain Radon high-resolution demultiple.
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Imaging of Fractures and Faults Inside Granite Basement Using Controlled Beam Migration
Authors Don Pham, Jason Sun, James Sun, Qingbing Tang and Graeme Bone and Nguyen Truong GiangIn this paper, we present a reprocessing case study that applied the latest processing technologies to improve the seismic imaging inside the granite basement reservoir. The highlight of this effort is the application of the latest Controlled Beam Migration (CBM) technology, and a stack sweep method for updating velocity inside the basement.
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NMO Application in VTI Media: Effective and Intrinsic Eta
Authors Joel Starr and Maz FaroukiNMO or normal move-out is the time shift needed to correct for the effect of offset and velocity in a CMP gather. NMO equations approximate the time shift which would be computed by tracing a ray through a horizontally layered Earth. A few years ago the 2nd order NMO equation, or hyperbolic NMO, was considered adequate in most cases. Today there are many options in the industry to apply higher order NMO which reduces the error in the approximation to the ray traced solution for longer offsets. There are two
characteristics which are important when considering the application of a given NMO curve: 1) accuracy, how well the NMO curve approximates the ray traced solution, and 2) stability, how well the curve can tolerate small errors in the estimated velocity field (one would not want small errors in the estimated velocity field to cause large errors in the move-out time calculated). If the data being processed is isotropic in nature, then the NMO equation will be dependent on velocity, v and offset x. If the data exhibits VTI (transverse isotropy with a vertical axis of symmetry) behavior, where the velocity of acoustic waves traveling horizontally is different from the velocity of acoustic waves traveling vertically, then the parameter η is used in the NMO equation in addition to v and x. Effective η in the NMO equation expressed by Alkhalifah and Tsvankin (1995) is required to correct for both longoffset (non-hyperbolic) and VTI effects in seismic data. Since two effects are being handled by a single parameter, it is difficult to determine if a dataset exhibits VTI behavior solely on the need for an effective η (ηeff) parameter to NMO correct the cdp gathers. This leads to ambiguity in the interpretation of ηeff when performing velocity analysis and time imaging. An optimized 6th order NMO equation separates the longoffset terms from the VTI term. The η parameter in this equation is needed only to correct the VTI effects and as such it represents intrinsic η (ηint). The use of these two equations has been compared in two case histories. In the first case history, ηeff is required but ηint is not required. As such, the data exhibits long-offset isotropic behavior. In the second case history, both ηeff and ηint are required in their respective NMO equations; therefore, the data exhibits VTI.
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Geophysical Issues and Challenges In Malay and Adjacent Basins
More LessAlthough seismic method has been successfully in the Malay, Sarawak and Sabah basins for quite sometime, there are many geophysical issues that are not well understood or fully resolved. Some of the problems are structurally related whereas the rest are related to interpretation of amplitudes. Of the most complex problem is the gas wipe out issues. Many of our reservoirs suffer from shallow gas leakage and are difficult to image. The easiest way to resolve this problem is the use of shear wave through Ocean Bottom Cable (OBC) technology. However it is quite expensive and most of operators are reluctant to use the technology. An alternative but less effective way is to better focus the P-wave energy by considering approaches like a. Compensation for absorption and or b. Internal scattering within the gas body Another imaging issue is the fault shadowing problem in many tectonically disturbed areas (Sabah) which gives poor imaging in key zones below the fault. Seismic wave propagation in Malay basin is complicated. In the most cases pay-beds are thin in the seismic tuning range so the earth behaves as an “effective media”. Wave propagation in this “media” is different and needs to be understood better. In terms of relationship between amplitude to hydrocarbon prediction certain ambiguities arise from amplitude response caused by lithology or those by pore fill. Further spurious amplitude and AVO responses may come from 1. Soft shales and hard shales 2. Coal layers 3. Brine soft sands Ambiguity of equivalent response in seismic inversion is a very common pitfall. For example: A poor quality sand with gas might give similar response as high quality sand with brine within errors of uncertainties and noise. Some of these issues will be addressed and certain solution suggested.
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Exeter Mutineer – Case Study of an Integrated Project from Seismic Survey Design to Inversion
Authors Tim Bunting and Richard Patternall and Frazer BarclayIn 2006 WesternGeco acquired a seismic survey for Santos, to image the Exeter Mutineer field on the North West Shelf of Australia. Although the field has been in production since 2003, the understanding of the reservoir is limited. Existing seismic was of marginal quality and did not deliver the subtle detail required to understand the complexities of the Exeter Mutineer reservoir. The new seismic has delivered significant uplift in resolution over the existing seismic. This case study will initially discuss the background and drivers for the new acquisition and then look into how the combination of high end acquisition technology and the integrated approach delivered value to the oil company.
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Comparative Analysis of Simultaneous Inversion Result with Elastic Inversion and AVO Envelope in Sumandak Field
More LessDirect hydrocarbon indicators play a very important role for prospect identification. The seismic amplitude based hydrocarbon indicators derived only from seismic information are qualitative and inherited with the tuning and other noise artifacts. There are several techniques to derive hydrocarbon indicators from the integration of well and seismic amplitude information. In the present study, a comparative analysis of Amplitude Variation with Offsets (AVO) envelope, Elastic inversion and Simultaneous inversion results has
been carried out in the Sumandak field. The interpretative analysis of simultaneous inversion results indicates that the reservoir can be predicted more accurately with LambdaRho-Vp/Vs attributes volumes in comparison to AVO envelope and EI results. It has been concluded that some of the AVO features are unconformable with structure; however, the simultaneous inversion results are conformable to geological structures which boosts the confidence to use the simultaneous inversion result instead of AVO envelope and Elastic inversion for quantitative interpretation.
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3D Close-the-Loop: Reconnecting Reservoir Modeling to the Seismic Data
More LessIntegrated reservoir modeling is a challenging task and in order to ensure the best possible model(s) it must honor all available subsurface data. Successful modeling studies require that all subsurface disciplines are involved throughout the whole process and are QCing the model in the context of all available data. Good quality seismic data is available for many fields and should be fully used in reservoir modeling. We are proficient in incorporating the interpretation of horizons and faults from the seismic data into the
model framework. On many occasions seismic inversion products (for example, acoustic impedance volumes) are used to guide the distribution of reservoir properties, like Porosity or Net-to-Gross, throughout the model. Care is taken to QC the model to ensure consistency with the petrophysical data at the well locations and the geologic concept (distribution of facies, properties, and shapes). But the seismic response of a model was not compared to the actual seismic data.
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Elastic Impedance Inversion for Reservoir Delineation– A Quantitative Interpretation Case Study in the Malay Basin
Authors N. Cheng, I. Bukhari, I. Kanok and S. Awirut and C.VitoonThis case study focuses on development well targeting using the methodology of elastic impedance inversion to identify effective seismic attributes for delineating thin gas sands formed in a tidal environment with massive coal-beds. The study area is located in the Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development Area (MTJDA) to the north of the Malay Basin. The reservoir sands, statistically are less than 10 meters and inter-bedded with coals (Fig-1). Seismically, the reservoir sands are below seismic tuning thickness resolution and strong coal reflections interfere with the conventional post-stack seismic data. A comprehensive workflow based on pre-stack elastic impedance inversion was developed to address the aforementioned effects and gain more value from the seismic data. The workflow includes three key steps: modeling, processing and interpretation.
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Integrated Geological and Geophysical Analysis by Hierarchical Classification: Combining Seismic Stratigraphic and AVO Attributes
Seismic attributes analysis and classification for exploration and reservoir characterization have been widely published. Applications vary from standard horizon-based facies classification maps to more recent 3D multi-attribute facies classification volumes. The approach is usually the same and run in a two-step procedure. First, an unsupervised classification aims at revealing the natural clustering of the data, and second, a supervised scheme is applied where training and validation data are used to redefine the class cloud point centers based on well log data flagging a specific fluid or lithology. The limitations of these approaches are that they are focused on one aspect of the seismic response, usually fluid, and tend to neglect the geological framework. In these workflows, more attention is put on the reservoir facies for fluid and potential lithology detection, while the seismic seismostratigraphic signature is overlooked or not used as a constrain in the attribute analysis. We present a case study in which both texture facies and fluid prediction are linked by performing a hierarchical classification and estimation scheme whereby a multiattributes volume, which captures seismic stratigraphy and texture information, is combined with AVO attributes to map fluid response into a single,
coherent seismostratigraphic and reservoir facies volume. This methodology is applied for exploration data screening in offshore Borneo in the Greater Samarang sub-block (East Baram Delta, offshore Sabah, Malaysia). In this case study, geological framework, seismic geomorphology, seismic stratigraphy, and combined fluid response from AVO data calibrated with well data facilitate the development of new play concepts in the highstand system tracts and in the morphology generated by incisions in the shoreface deposits during the low stands.
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Volume Blending with Directional Seismic Attributes
Authors Arthur E. Barnes and Surender S. ManralMulti-attribute analysis through volume blending is a powerful but under-utilized tool for revealing details in seismic data. It is most effective when a seismic attribute that highlights geologic structure, such as discontinuity or lightscape (shaded relief), is displayed in grayscale and combined with an attribute that highlights an element of stratigraphy, such as reflection strength (trace envelope) or average frequency, displayed in color. The directional attributes, lightscape, azimuth, and amplitude gradients, are particularly effective for volume blending. Filtering the structural attributes often greatly improves them for blending.
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Application of Rock Physics Modelling and Seismic Attribute in Developing the Geological Model - An Example from Eocene Deepwater Turbidite in Block 21/23A, CNS, UK.
Block 21/23a is a sub-block of UKCS Block 21/23, which is located within Quadrant 21, Central North Sea, UK. A total of three fields were discovered in Block 21/23, namely the Pict, Saxon and Sheryl fields. The Pict and Saxon fields are located in Block 21/23b and operated by PetroCanada. The Sheryl field is located in Block 21/23a and operated by Oilexco. The Sheryl field was discovered in year 2006 based on Elastic Impedance anomaly. The discovery was made in the Eocene Tay deepwater turbidite reservoir. This study is based on an integrated approach of utilising the rock physics forward modelling, seismic attribute and geological data in constructing a robust conceptual geological model for the purpose of further prospect evaluations and static model building. Rock physics forward modelling was conducted prior to seismic data interpretation to build a geophysical database comprising the analogues of seismic responses under different rock properties and pore fluid contents. This database was used to enhance the accuracy in seismic data interpretation. The forward modelling results concluded that the MuRho (μρ) dataset can be used as a lithology indicator, while the LambdaRho (λρ) dataset is a fluid type indicator. The AVO modelling showed that brine, oil and gas saturated sands are characterised by Class I, Class II to IIp and Class III AVO responses respectively. The palaeogeographic map clearly demonstrated that the study area can be divided into four main depositional environments, namely shelf edge, slope, proximal and distal basin floors with increasing relative palaeo-water depth from SW to NE. The shelf edge setting was interpreted based on its thicker Tay stratigraphic unit observed at the proximal part of the canyon system identified on the slope setting. The proximal and distal basin floor settings were differentiated based on the sand geometries, where the former is characterised by channelised sand and the latter contained sheet-like sand geometry that was interpreted to be basin floor fans. Eventually, a conceptual geological model was developed based on the interpretation of all the available geological and geophysical data.
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The First Megamerged Seismic Data Processing Project in Malaysia
More LessThis paper looks into the method by which the then Veritas team used to re-grid the surveys to a common ‘master’ grid. This so-called master grid was set up such that future 3D surveys could be incorporated relatively easily into this dataset. The discussion shows how each volume was matched to be of common amplitude, bandwidth and phase and then finishes off by viewing the philosophy behind the merging of the volumes which culminated in a single output dataset.
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The Application of CSEM (Controlled Source Electromagnetic) Technology as a Tool to Complement 3D Seismic Interpretation and Avo Analysis in a Deepwater Prospect: A Case Study on Prospect B, Block 2F, Offshore Sarawak
By Wong Eng YaoThe Controlled Source Electromagnetic (CSEM) method has emerged into the oil and gas exploration industry, especially in deepwater exploration, and provides geoscientists another tool to assess a prospect by looking at another physical property, i.e. resistivity, besides acoustic properties that can be derived from seismic and AVO analysis. In this context, CSEM technology is no doubt a tool to complement seismic interpretation and AVO analysis by offering an independent data set to exploration work. However, as the technology is purely based on resistivity contrast down-earth, there is still room for debate as to whether or not the technology is capable enough to help in delineating the true geology of an area. This paper presents the result of a 2D CSEM survey over Prospect B of Block 2F, Rajang Delta, offshore Sarawak. The 3D seismic of the prospect shows a high amplitude anomaly at both crest and flanks of the structure (Figure 1); while AVO analysis over the crest of the structure gives a Class III AVO response which hints at an existence of a gas cap (Figure 2). The CSEM response displays a positive magnitude buildup which indicates a resistive body lying beneath (Figure 3). The question left here is the geological model that would explain all the responses obtained whilst honoring the geological (stratigraphic) information from wells drilled in the area before; Whether what lies beneath is truly a sizeable and quality gas reservoir, or, considering the limited resolution of seismic and stacking response of CSEM technology, just thinly-bedded siltstones that wouldn’t bring much excitement. A discussion will be presented in this paper based on the Depth Migration result of CSEM method.
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Recent CSEM Learnings in Deepwater Borneo
Authors Matthew Choo, Chester Young, Ling Chin Tiong and James Beer and Peter ShinerControlled Source Electromagnetic (CSEM) is an emerging technology with the potential to provide detailed resistivity images of the subsurface. In the context of exploration in DW Borneo, given the potential to directly image the high-resistivity zones associated with hydrocarbon pay, the technology was regarded as the ideal tool to reduce one of the most significant exploration risks in the basin – seal failure. A number of significant early successes over DW Borneo’s toe-thrust anticline plays confirmed the potential promise of the technology as an exploration tool in the basin. Following on this string of successes, CSEM data was acquired over a number of similar structures in 2006. Application of industry-standard processing and interpretive techniques on the data revealed an encouraging CSEM anomaly. However, proprietary inversion techniques indicated the possible presence of a shallow surface resistive body, while hinting at the presence of slightly elevated resistivities at depth. An exploration well campaign was carried out over the prospect late in 2006, but rather than encountering the expected hydrocarbon pay, the well encountered a near surface and resistive hydrate layer. Good quality but waterbearing reservoir was encountered at the target depth. This disappointment was the first CSEM negative test in the basin and highlights the need for further development of processing and interpretation methodologies. This paper will present the key CSEM experiences in DW Borneo to date, highlighting on the pros and cons of a still promising and evolving technology in what is still a challenging area.
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CSEM Pilot Survey in Southeast Asia: Challenges and Takeaways
Controlled Source Electro-Magnetic (CSEM) surveys have proved to be useful in de-risking the hydrocarbon prospects in the deep water environment, due to their capability to distinguish between the brine and hydrocarbon saturated reservoirs. However, the interpretation of CSEM response in marginal water depths and complex geological setups remains challenging due to the interference of airwave with electromagnetic field and the background resistivity variations. In the year 2006, PETRONAS conducted a pilot CSEM survey in one of its offshore block in Southeast Asia. The survey was aimed to understand the key risks of the two hydrocarbon prospects identified in the area and to evaluate the strengths and limitations of the CSEM technique for its future application in shallow water depths and complex geological setups.
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Channel Chasing in Malay Basin Using Mega Merged Data
More LessIn 2005, the Basin Studies Group of PRAM, PMU merged 29 3D dataset of the South Eastern part of the Malay Basin. The 3D dataset for the merging ranges from vintage data of 1995 to 2004 covering an areas of approximately of 20,000 sq km with a volume of 1.7 Terra byte of data (Figure 1). The Regional Study of the Malay Basin was carried out by utilizing the 3D Mega Merged Seismic data. With the huge volume of data involved, new technology of hardware and software was applied to handle the data. 3D volume interpretation software and a high end machine (i.e. 128G Machine) is required to do structural and horizons interpretation for the purpose of evaluating any new leads and prospects available in the entire South eastern part of the Malay Basin. By leveraging and integrating the rich information content of geophysical and geological data of the Malay Basin, near field opportunities of new play type and leads/ prospects will be able to be identified/emerged from the study. Malay Basin is a mature basin in terms of exploration activities in Malaysia and one of the objective of the Mega merge project is to carry out a seismic modeling on regional scale to define regions of common response i.e. channel, point bar. Total of ten (10) horizons tops (D, E, F, H, I, J, K, L, M & Basement) and almost 400 faults were interpreted on the mega merge seismic cube. Forty (40) control wells were also used as formation tops for calibration. Fifteen (15) Regional 2D RC lines were also incorporated in the study for areas where no overlapping of the 3D seismic. Extensive attribute works i.e. Spectral Decomposition, Sweetness, Amplitude Extraction, Reflection Strength has been carried out to identify potential stratigraphic leads and prospect and possible fracture basement. Multiple and stack channels trending from different levels can be observed from the attributes work generated. Most of the channels identified are from Group E, F, I and H of the Lower to Middle Miocene trending NE – SW direction (Figure 2 & Figure 3). Majority of channels presents are observed in Block PM 309 and PM 312 and others are seen in most of the PM Blocks
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Innovative Frontier Exploration Using Seismic and SeaSeep Data, Indonesia: Implications for Malaysia
More LessMost of the world’s oil was discovered using onshore surface maps and seeps. Within the past few years, technologies developed for conventional marine hydrographic surveys and anti-submarine warfare have been upgraded, modified, and integrated for offshore petroleum exploration and in particular, deepwater (400– 3,500m) exploration. Very high resolution maps of the sea bottom and zones of oil and gas seepage may be identified using a vessel traveling at 10 knots and surveying a swath of about 4 km. Similar advances in subsea positioning enable accurately-navigated piston-core to sample features we identified on sea-bottom map. These cores can be subjected to modern geochemical analysis and therefore locations of thermogenic hydrocarbon charge may
be identified. In December 2006, TGS-NOPEC commenced the world’s largest multibeam and the world’s first non-exclusive SeaSeepTM survey as part of an innovative exploration program in the offshore frontier basins of Indonesia. The program was underwritten by Black Gold Energy and co-sponsored by Joint Study partner MIGAS.
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Time-Lapse Seismic Modelling in Malay Basin
More LessTime-Lapse seismic has become as an important petroleum reservoir monitoring and management tools since its successful application in 1990s. The fundamental principle underlying the time-lapse seismic is simple, that is, the changes in reservoir parameters or properties are directly related to the differences in seismic response between the monitor and the base surveys. In reality however, the application is not that simple. There are many issues needed to be understood and considered before concluding any differences observed are due to changes in reservoir properties and not due to other factors such as seismic acquisition parameters and seismic processing artifacts. Feasibility study prior to a full time-lapse seismic project is crucial in providing information that helps guide our expectations. Changes in fluid type and saturation may not necessarily be significant enough to induce a large impedance contrast and consequently detected by seismic signal. The reservoir pore-fluids, rock matrix and frame, and reservoir conditions need to be fully understood to ensure the success of any timelapse seismic study. There are many aspects of a time-lapse feasibility study that need to be considered such as seismic acquisition design, processing algorithm and parameters, reservoir production, reservoir fluid properties, reservoir rock properties, reservoir monitoring program, geomechanics, seismic modeling, etc. This paper will focus on the fluid properties and seismic modeling aspects of the feasibility which is thought able to give, if even not full, a sufficient understanding on how pore-fluid type and saturations in the reservoir with varying types and thicknesses of cap rock could affect the resultant seismic amplitude, the fundamental element of any time-lapse seismic study.
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Fit for Purpose Time Lapse Seismic at F6
Authors Elvis Chung and Paul HagueF6 is Shell’s largest gas field in the offshore Sarawak, with a GIIP (Gas Initially In-Place) of around 7Tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet). Production commenced in 1987 from a single platform located above the central pinnacle of the carbonate build-up. By 2006, 4Tcf had been produced, but scope for redevelopment still remains in the form of further drilling and late life compression. However, the biggest uncertainty is the strength of the aquifer and the movement of the GWC (Gas Water Contact). Pulsed neutron logging indicates a GWC rise near the main producing area beneath the platform but a large uncertainty remains towards the flanks. The first 3D seismic survey over F6 was acquired in 2002 (15 years after production start-up), which means there is no suitable pre-production 3D baseline survey. Prior to commitment to the project, a feasibility study was carried out within SSB (Sarawak Shell Berhad) using the 2002 dataset as the 3D baseline. The objectives were primarily, to determine if production-related sweep signals are observable on seismic and if so, when is the ideal time to carry out the monitor survey in order to impact business decisions. The feasibility studies showed that a time-lapse seismic response could be expected in 2006 but highlighted that the timelapse
signals on the flank may be weak to image. This is largely driven by the two different reservoir model inputs in the feasibility study, which could be a uniform rise of the GWC or cone-shape rise of the GWC. Both models also have significant impact on recoverable gas on the flanks as illustrated as in Figure 1. Finally, the changes in the velocity and impedance from both models were found to be small (<5%) and thus, requires good repeatability and good signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) seismic data in order to observe time-lapse signals. Considering the possibilities from the study and the business impact of additional recoverable volume at the flank, the time-lapse seismic was a timely exercise to help understand the extent of water influx and derisk future investment on the field.
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Large-Scale Pore Pressure Prediction after Pre-Stack Depth Migration in The Caspian Sea
More LessDespite all the difficulties, it seems that a successful attempt has been made in predicting the pressures in this difficult area. The main challenges are (1) the pressure compartmentalisation, (2) non pressure related influences on resistivity logs, (3) variable pressures, (4) sands and shales often not in pressure equilibrium and (5) an extremely difficult velocity and imaging environment. It is still required to undertake real time prediction of pore pressures while drilling. The current volumes can be used as a reference. Due to the challenges listed and the seismic limitations, there will always be an associated uncertainty and error with respect to the pressure predictions. But the best attempt has been made, and the PSDM has increased the accuracy and reliability of the velocity model. The pressure model used can be updated when new well data becomes available. Of vital importance and value is the combination of well mechanical and operational knowledge and seismic processing expertise.
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Reservoir Characterization and Monitoring Using Multi-Transient Electromagnetic (MTEM)
More LessThe Multi-Transient Electro-Magnetic (MTEM) method implements a current bi-pole source with a sequence of receiver stations that measure the resulting voltage. Source and receiver stations are located in a straight line similar to 2-D seismic. Onshore and offshore acquisition systems have been developed providing continuous coverage of the subsurface including the transition zone. The earth’s impulse response is obtained for each source receiver pair by deconvolving the received voltage for the input current. The source signal is a Pseudo Random Binary Series (PRBS) that combined with vertical stacking allows us to maximize S/N. The subsurface resistivity is evaluated from the very shallow sediments down to the target depth by continuously optimizing the acquisition parameters. This involves adjusting the length of the source bi-pole, the bandwidth of the source PRBS, and the sampling rate of the recorded signal to be optimal for each offset range. The method allows for real time monitoring of the signal and real time assessment of the subsurface resistivity. The final deliverables are 2-D depth sections inverted to resistivity along 2-D profiles.
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Oil and Gas Outlook: Acquiring a Clear Image of the Future
By Hovey CoxThe oil and gas industry, over its history, has seen times of great strength and long periods of weakness. It has also demonstrated a propensity for proving wrong those who try to predict its cycles and peaks. Over recent history we have experienced one of the greatest, if not the greatest, period of long-term economic growth worldwide. This expansion was literally powered by the relatively clean and inexpensive energy that fossil fuels, oil and gas in particular, provide. Over the past ten years, as economic development strengthened and energy consumption continued to climb, especially in the World’s emerging economies, several underlying factors in the energy landscape have started to challenge the oil and gas industry’s historic models. To meet the growing need for energy, E&P budgets increased across the industry focused primarily on production technology to optimize recovery from known assets. This reduced the risks associated with quarterly returns in the capital markets worldwide and at the same time increased depletion rates. When combined with flat-lining exploration spending and the resulting decrease in discovery rates, it also dramatically reduced spare capacity. Together these trends arguably, at least at the current time, moved the oil and gas marketplace from a supply-side to a demand-side driven market. Changes are needed. When the trends outlined above are compounded with: the growing geological and geopolitical complexities in our business, the rising concern worldwide over increasing energy costs and the industry’s environmental impact, it provides a clear opportunity to examine our current business as our historic models may not work as well in the future as the did in the past. We today, as an industry, sit at a unique place in history that suggests a review of possible directions and decisions. This presentation explores the current state of the industry along with its fundamental drivers to uncover the key challenges companies face today to successfully produce results tomorrow.
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